Ireland, the island located in the Atlantic Ocean west of Great Britain, was settled by dark and swarthy Celts from Gaul about 400 B.C., but eventually they became known for their red hair and light complexions after frequent Viking invasions. The Celts assimilated the native Erainn and Picts and established a Gaelic civilization. After the arrival of St. Patrick in 432 A.D., Ireland evolved into a center of Latin learning which sent missionaries to Europe and possibly North America. In 1154, Pope Adrian IV gave all of Ireland to English King Henry II to administer as a Papal fief. Because of the enactment of anti-Catholic laws and the awarding of vast tracts of Irish land to Protestant absentee landowners, English control did not become reasonably absolute until 1800 when England and Ireland became the ?United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.? Religious freedom was restored to the Irish in 1829, but agitation for political autonomy continued until the Irish Free State was established as a dominion on Dec. 6, 1921 while Northern Ireland remained within the United Kingdom. Rulers:, ,British to 1921 Monetary System:, ,1 Shilling = 12 Pence ,1 Pound = 20 Shillings to 1971 ,1 Guinea = 21 Shillings ,1 Pound = 100 Pence 1971- ,Iraq was the site of a number of flourishing civilizations of antiquity ? Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Parthian, Persian ? and of the Biblical cities of Ur, Nineveh and Babylon. Desired because of its favored location which embraced the fertile alluvial plains of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, Mesopotamia ? ?land between the rivers? ? was conquered by Cyrus the Great of Persia, Alexander of Macedonia and by Arabs who made the legendary city of Baghdad the capital of the ruling caliphate. Suleiman the Great conquered Mesopotamia for Turkey in 1534, and it formed part of the Ottoman Empire until 1623, and from 1638 to 1917. Great Britain, given a League of Nations mandate over the territory in 1920, recognized Iraq as a kingdom in 1922. Iraq became an independent constitutional monarchy presided over by the Hashemite family, direct descendants of the prophet Mohammed, in 1932. In 1958, the army-led revolution of July 14 overthrew the monarchy and proclaimed a republic. After several military coups, Saddam Hussein became president in 1979. Rulers:, ,Faisal I, 1921-1933 ,Ghazi I, 1933-1939 ,Faisal II, 1939-1958 Monetary System:, ,1 Dirham = 50 Fils ,1 Riyal = 200 Fils ,1 Dinar = 1000 Fils ,Iran (historically known as Persia) is one of the world?s most ancient and resilient nations. Strategically astride the lower land gate to Asia, it has been conqueror and conquered, sovereign nation and vassal state, ever emerging from its periods of glory or travail with its culture and political individually intact. Iran (Persia) was a powerful empire under Cyrus the great (600-529 B.C.), its borders extending from the Indus to the Nile. It has also been conquered by the predatory empires of antique and recent times ? Assyrian, Medean, Macedonian, Seljuq, Turk, Mongol ? and most recently been coveted by Russia, Germany and Great Britain. Revolts against the absolute power of the Shahs resulted in the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in 1906. In 1931 the Kingdom of Tersia became known as the Kingdom or Iran. In 1979, the Persian monarchy was toppled and an Islamic Republic proclaimed. Rulers:, ,Qajar Dynasty ,Sultan Ahmad Shah, AH 1327-44/1909-25 AD ,Pahlavi Dynasty ,Reza Shah, SH 1304-20/1909-25 AD ,Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, SH 1320-58/1941-79 AD Monetary System:, ,1 Shahi = 50 Dinars ,1 Kran (Qiran) = 20 Shahis ,1 Toman = 10 Krans AH1241-1344, SH1304-09 (1825-1931) ,1 Shahi = 5 Dinars ,1 Rial 100 Dinars = 20 Shahis ,1 Toman = 10 Rials SH1310- (1932- ) ,Had Columbus succeeded in reaching the fabled Islands, he would have found advanced civilizations a millennium old, and temples still ranked among the finest examples of ancient art. During the opening centuries of the Christian era, the islands were influenced by Hindu priests and traders who spread their culture and region. Moslem invasions began in the 13th century, fragmenting the island kingdoms into small states which were unable to resist Western colonial infiltration. Portuguese traders established posts in the 16th century, but they were soon outnumbered by the Dutch who arrived in 1602 and gradually asserted control over the islands comprising present-day Indonesia. Dutch dominance, interpreted by British incursions during the Napoleonic Wars, established the Netherlands East Indies as one of the richest colonial possessions in the world. Monetary System:, ,1 Gulden = 100 Cents to 1948 ,1 Rupiah = 100 Sen, 1945- ,The people of India have had a continuous civilization since about 2500 B.C., when the urban culture based on commerce and trade, was developed by the inhabitants of the Indus River Valley. The origins of this civilization are uncertain, but it declined about 1500 B.C., when the region was conquered by the Aryans. Over the following 2,000 years, the Aryans developed a Brahmanic civilization and introduced the caste system. Several successive empires flourished in India over the following centuries, notably those of the Mauryans, Guptas and Mughals. In the 7th and 8th centuries A.D., the Arabs expanded into western India, bringing with them Islamic faith. A Muslim dynasty (the Mughal Empire) controlled virtually the entire subcontinent during the period preceding the arrival of the Europeans; an Indo-Islamic style of art and architecture evolved, of which the Taj Mahal is a splendid empire. ,The Portuguese were the first to arrive, off Calicut in May 1498. It was not until 1612, after Portuguese and Spanish power began to wane, that the English East India Company established its initial settlement at Surat. By the end of the century, English traders were firmly established in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta, as well as in some parts if the interior and Britain was implementing a policy to create the civil and military institutions that would insure British dominion over the country. Bu 1757, following the successful conclusion of a war of colonial rivalry with France, the British were firmly established in India not only as traders, but as conquerors. During the next 60 years, the English East India Company acquired dominion over most of India by bribery and force, and ruled directly or through puppet princelings. ,The Indian Mutiny (also called Sepoy Mutiny) of 1857-59, begun by Indian troops in the service of Britain East India Company, revealed the intensity of the growing resentment against British domination. The widespread rebellion against British rule was unsuccessful, but resulted in the transfer of government from the company to the British crown. ,Following World War I, in which India sent six million troops to fight at the side of the Allies, Indian nationalism intensified under the banner of the Indian National Congress and the leadership of Mohandas Gandhi, who called the non-violent revolt against British authority. The Government of India Act of 1935 proposed a federal status linking the British India provinces with the many princely states; in addition provincial legislatures were to be created. The federal status was never implemented, but the legislatures were created after the election of 1937, with the National Congress winning majorities in most of the provinces. ,When Britain declared war on Germany in Sept. 1939, the viceroy declared India also to be at war with a common enemy. The Congress, however, demanded independence as a condition for cooperation. Britain refused. But as the Japanese advanced into Asia, Britain offered to transfer to Indian power over all but military affairs during the war, and set forth a plan for postwar independence. Congress was willing to accept the wartime transfer of power, but both Congress and the Muslim League rejected Britain?s plan for independence; Congress because it did not sufficiently safeguard Indian unity, the Muslims (who wanted a separate Muslim state) because of fears of what would happen to Muslims within a united India. ,Early in 1947, Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that Britain would leave India ?by a date not later than June 1948,? even though the Hindus and Muslims could not agree among themselves on a plan for self-government. The National Congress, aware that the Muslim League would revolt rather than accept an all-India government, reluctantly agreed to the formation of a separate Muslim state. The Muslim-populated provinces of the northwest frontier, Sindh and West Punjab in the west, and East Bengal in the east were separated from India to form the Muslim state of Pakistan, which became independent on August 14, 1947. India became independent on 1,000 miles of Indian territory. East Pakistan seceded from Pakistan on March 26, 1971, and with the support of India established itself as the independent Peoples Republic of Bangladesh. ,The Republic of India is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The president is the Chief of State. The prime minister is the Head of Government.,, Rulers:,,, ,British to 1947,, Monetary System:,,, ,1 Rupee = 16 Annas to 1957,, ,1 Rupee = 100 Naye Paise, 1957-1964,, ,1 Rupee = 100 Paise, 1964-,,